Ray Peat on Salt and Sodium

Physical Adjustment Phase with Increased Sodium Intake

"If you suddenly increase your sodium intake, your body takes one to two days to adjust. During this time, you store some extra water. After this short adjustment phase, however, you excrete sodium in the same amount as you take in."

Nutrition For Women

Influence of Estrogen on Water Retention and Salt Cravings

"Under the influence of excess estrogen, your body retains extra water, and your appetite center should balance this water by making you crave more salt. If you learn to avoid salty foods during these times (or if you take a diuretic), your blood cannot carry as much water as when enough salt is present. As a result, the salt remains in the tissue instead of being transported through the blood to the kidneys."

Nutrition For Women

The Importance of Salt in the Diet for Pregnant Women

"Tom Brewer showed how important it is to eat enough salt during pregnancy to maintain adequate blood volume. If salt is restricted during pregnancy, the low blood volume cannot transport enough oxygen and nutrients to the uterus, so the baby cannot fully develop. The kidneys then release a hormone to stimulate circulation, which increases the tendency toward high blood pressure."

Nutrition For Women

The Role of Sodium in Circulatory Weakness and Various Complaints

"Building on Brewer's research, I realized that additional sodium should also help in other situations where circulation is inefficient. Premenstrual water retention, insomnia, and even high blood pressure often respond very well to it."

Nutrition For Women

Effects of Sodium on Magnesium Retention During Stress

"One of the most important effects of sodium is that it tends to spare magnesium, which is easily lost during stress and hypothyroidism. When we eat salty foods when we crave them, we can retain magnesium more easily in the body."

Nutrition For Women

Sodium as a Protein-Sparing Factor in Kidney Function

"There is even evidence that sodium can spare protein. Because if there is not enough sodium to excrete it in the urine and thus balance acids, the kidneys waste protein to form ammonium – as an ionic substitute for sodium."

Nutrition For Women

The Central Importance of Sodium for Maintaining Blood Volume

"The most important point to remember is that sodium is crucial for maintaining an adequate blood volume, and it is almost always unphysiological and irrational to restrict sodium intake. Because a reduced blood volume tends to decrease the supply of oxygen and nutrients to all tissues, which can lead to many problems."

Nutrition For Women

Nutrient Requirements for Stress Resistance and Recovery

"Stress apparently increases a person's need for all nutrients, including calories and protein. The vitamins most commonly used to cope with stress are A, C, E, and pantothenic acid. The minerals magnesium, calcium, potassium, and zinc can help in the early stages of stress, and sodium supplements may be necessary in the final, extreme stress phase when the adrenal glands are exhausted."

Nutrition For Women

Saline solutions for preserving muscle during fasting

"A recent study (1975) examines the possibility that a balanced saline solution can prevent the breakdown of muscle and other protein-rich tissue during fasting. I have found that such a solution relieves feelings of stress, so I believe it will be shown to prevent protein breakdown."

Nutrition For Women

The role of aspirin in mitochondrial oxygen consumption and fever

"Probably due to aspirin's fever-reducing effect, medical culture tends to consider it non-thermogenic – despite its known stimulation of mitochondrial oxygen consumption. Like thyroid hormone, aspirin prevents the stress-related loss of sodium, which is an important part of our system for regulating temperature and energy."

November 2020 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Nutritional thermogenesis and the body's own energy regulation

"Nutritional thermogenic factors include sodium, calcium, vitamin D, carbohydrates – especially sugar – as well as protein. They work together with our body's own factors for energy regulation, particularly the thyroid and progesterone."

November 2020 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

The recovery process in nerve cells and ion selectivity

"In the activated state, nerve cells allow extracellular ions like sodium to enter, but the restoration of the exclusive state happens instantly. The state of the proteins briefly resembles denatured proteins. With excessive stimulation, recovery is incomplete, and when the proteins and the gel structure are in a partially denatured state, experimentally introduced foreign molecules (dyes) can be observed inside the cells."

Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain

Pregnancy, energy, and adequate nutrient supply

"The importance of salt and calcium during pregnancy is related to their effects on the respiratory energy system. The fact that these effects are not widely known has led most doctors to believe that a diet providing all the necessary nutrients is sufficient for pregnancy and breastfeeding. Despite the presence of all essential nutrients – which would be enough for someone with a fundamentally supportive environment – good nutrition is not necessarily sufficient for someone with a problematic environment or a history of stressful experiences."

May 2019 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Influence of Nutrition on Hormone Secretion

"Increasing sodium and calcium intake (and vitamin D, which also helps lower parathyroid hormone and aldosterone) can reduce the release of aldosterone and parathyroid hormone, leading to an increase in oxidative energy production."

May 2019 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Ling's Criticism of the Sodium Pump Theory

"While biologists claimed to defend mechanistic-materialistic science against vitalism, they were actually rarely able to think in physical-chemical terms – and that was exactly the core of Ling's work. His criticism of the sodium pump in the cell membrane made it clear that this pump was merely the 'ghost in the machine' needed to animate the conventional theory of the living cell."

March 2020 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Active Transport and the Role of ATP in Cells

"The membrane theory states that accumulating a substance against its concentration gradient is active transport and requires the use of ATP. Experiments by Ling and others showed that the energy metabolism of cells could be poisoned so that no ATP was produced, yet the cells could still maintain their ion gradient – even though sodium could freely diffuse through the membrane into the cell. All ATP has to do is be present and passively occupy its place in the cell."

March 2020 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Ling's View on the Binding Energy of ATP

"Since Ling did not assume that the binding energy of ATP is constantly consumed to drive sodium pumps in the cell membrane, he was also not concerned with the energy that could be released during the hydrolysis of this bond. He was – like Albert Szent-Gyorgyi – aware that the ATP molecule adsorbs to protein molecules with considerable energy and that its presence determines the shape of the protein molecule."

March 2020 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Replacing the Sperm Cell with Simple Substances

"Loeb showed that the specific biological stimulus of a sperm cell interacting with a receptor in the egg was not necessary to fertilize an egg; seawater – with added salt or sugar or urea, or with acid or alkali – was sufficient."

January 2019 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Overlooked Nutritional Factors in Infertility

"Too much carotene, too little vitamin A, not enough magnesium or sodium, and too much cortisol are often overlooked factors in infertility."

Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life

The Role of Nutrition in Preventing Pregnancy Complications

"Sufficient protein, glucose, and sodium to maintain blood volume will prevent most of these problems in late pregnancy – unless the hormonal imbalance is very severe."

Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life

Natural antagonists in the treatment of degenerative brain diseases

"Antiendorphin, antiexcitotoxic, anticholinergic, antiserotonergic, antiprostaglandin, and antiglucocorticoid drugs have been used with good effect in various degenerative diseases of the nervous system, but all so-called 'anti' drugs are imprecise antagonists and have many side effects. Natural antagonists and nutrients are usually helpful. Protein, sodium, magnesium, carbon dioxide/bicarbonate, progesterone, thyroid, vitamins, etc., can have healing effects in many brain diseases."

February 2001 - February

Effects of estrogen on tissue water and the sodium-potassium ratio

"The immediate effect of estrogen on responsive tissue is that it absorbs water and increases its sodium-to-potassium ratio. These changes lead to depolarization and activation of nerve, muscle, and some gland cells, as well as the initiation of growth and cell division in other cell types. If this growth process continued uncontrolled or even accelerated, it is obvious that shape, proportion, and organization would quickly be lost."

March 2000 - March

Refutation of the sodium pump theory in cell physiology

"Although no one could explain how a molecule could hurl a sodium atom out of a cell or across membranes like the kidney tubules, sodium pumps were supposed to explain the different sodium concentrations in various compartments, and it was said that water would passively follow sodium. This theory could not explain how water can be retained while sodium is lost, or why osmotic pressure varies under certain conditions."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Electroosmosis in water movement between cell compartments

"Physical chemists understood how water can be moved from one compartment to another through the process of electroosmosis, but cell physiologists generally continue to believe in their sodium pumps and attribute the responsibility for water distribution to them. Discussions about edema in medical textbooks have a somewhat unpleasantly comic aspect because their elaborate Rube Goldberg machines* do not do what they are supposed to – despite all their embarrassing ad-hoc contrivances and contortions."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

The role of carbon dioxide in cellular ion regulation

"The adsorptive effects of carbon dioxide – and a wide variety of other chemical effects – modulate the structure and function of the cell so that it retains far more potassium than sodium and can excrete calcium while binding magnesium."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Estrogen Excess and Its Effects on Albumin Synthesis

"An excess of estrogen suppresses the liver's ability to synthesize albumin. When this is combined with albumin leaking into tissues (where it is slowly broken down) and into the urine, the blood loses its ability to retain sodium – much of which is bound to albumin."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Salt Intake and Its Effect on Premenstrual Water Retention

"After I was convinced that salt restriction can cause edema, and since women are told to restrict salt to prevent premenstrual water retention, I began suggesting that women salt their food to taste and increase their salt intake premenstrually if they crave it. I had never heard that salt restriction was supposed to prevent premenstrual water retention, but I immediately kept hearing that women who ate as much salt as they wanted no longer had premenstrual water retention."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Salt and Thyroid: Effects on Blood Pressure and Sleep

"Since increased adrenaline tends to raise blood pressure, I began explaining the effects of salt and thyroid to friends over 80. They found that they slept better, had more regular heartbeats, and did not get swollen feet when they ate a normal amount of salt. It did not cause their blood pressure to rise."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Rapid Adaptation of the Body to Changes in Salt Intake

"In my experiments, the body only needed two to three days to fully adapt to a massive change in salt intake. Many hormones quickly adjust to retain or excrete sodium – depending on the amount consumed – as long as the person is otherwise well-nourished."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Natural Factors to Correct Edema and Support Cell Function

"Thyroid, protein, sodium, and magnesium will correct most edema. Progesterone acts on the mitochondria to increase respiratory efficiency and on structural proteins to alter their ion affinities. This makes it work synergistically with other natural factors to normalize permeability and water regulation."

January 2000 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Studies on Parathyroid Hormone and Mineral Interchangeability

"About 88 years ago, W. K. Koch (known for his cancer therapy) studied parathyroid hormone and its relationship to tetany (persistent muscle contraction) and seizures. He was able to show that the main minerals – sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium – are interchangeable to some extent to relieve tetany and cramps caused by the removal of the parathyroid gland, with magnesium being the most effective."

December 1999 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Effective shock treatments developed earlier

"I have previously written about several dramatically effective shock treatments developed over the last fifty years—for example, intravenous ATP, concentrated solutions of sodium chloride or glucose, as well as the morphine/endorphin blocker naloxone."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Effect of sodium in the blood on the liver

"Liver ATP increases as a result of an increase in sodium in the blood. For example, an increase in blood sodium of only about 15% led to nearly doubling cellular ATP."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

The role of sodium in water distribution in cells and during fatigue

"Sodium is an extracellular ion that binds water so strongly that under normal conditions it is excluded from the cell—in a state where water is dominated by the cell's structural molecules. Only when the cell is stimulated or fatigued does it take up larger amounts of sodium, and the fatigued cell also takes up an excess of water. Textbooks say water follows sodium, but the physical reality is that sodium also follows the (free) water and tends to be excluded from the water inside cells. Increasing sodium in the environment of a 'water-overloaded' cell tends to dehydrate the cell."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

ATP production and the role of sodium in cells

"The membrane pump theory states that the cell consumes ATP to pump out the incoming sodium, and that more sodium outside the cell increases the likelihood of sodium entering the cell. In reality, however, more sodium outside the cell leads to more ATP being produced. The precise balance of ions seems to make the difference between ATP consumption or production."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Sodium, progesterone, and glucose in brain development

"In the fetus and newborn, sodium promotes growth. Progesterone, sodium, and glucose are often limiting factors for the growth of the baby's brain; when they are lacking, cells die instead of growing."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

The energy-giving role of sodium in cell functions

"In fact, sodium acts as an energizer. It helps remove calcium from the cell, produce ATP, and promote the uptake of glucose and amino acids."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

The role of carbon dioxide in regulation and energy production

"Carbon dioxide is heavily involved in the regulation of sodium and calcium, as well as in respiration and energy production. It tends to relax both nerves and muscles. Apparently, it is one of the key factors in preventing edema."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

The role of sodium in cellular water and ion management

"Sodium binds water to itself, and this very property causes it to be excluded from the normal cell. CO₂, when in water—especially with the help of carbonic anhydrase enzymes—combines with water. Since it is produced in the mitochondria, this means it transports water (as well as calcium and sodium) into the cytoplasm and out of the cell."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Sodium retention and carbon dioxide in hypothyroidism

"Low thyroid function is associated with reduced carbon dioxide production, and body fluids do not retain as much sodium as in healthy individuals. Both urine and sweat tend to contain abnormally high sodium concentrations in hypothyroidism. Since CO₂ is central to pH regulation and the excretion of hydrogen ions (acidic urine) is a mechanism involved in sodium retention, the CO₂ deficiency in hypothyroidism is likely closely related to the inability to retain sufficient sodium."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Energy effect of hypertonic sodium versus hypothyroidism

"If hypertonic sodium energizes, then sodium-poor, hypoosmotic body fluids in hypothyroidism de-energize."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Magnesium deficiency and energy loss in muscle relaxation

"Cells in hypothyroidism also cannot efficiently retain magnesium, and a magnesium deficiency prevents muscle relaxation, leading to wasted energy. Adequate sodium prevents magnesium loss through urine."

1998 - Ray Peat's Newsletter - 4

Sodium and carbon dioxide loss under stress

"Sodium and carbon dioxide are essential to maintain normal fields, and these substances interact in a way that causes both to be lost under stress. In hypothyroidism, sodium is permanently lost as carbon dioxide is chronically replaced by lactic acid. Both sodium (Veech et al.; Garrahan and Glynn) and carbon dioxide help—by stimulating the Krebs cycle and keeping respiratory enzymes active—to maintain normal ATP levels and thus protect against stress and shock."

1998 - Ray Peat’s Newsletter - 2

Linked features of cell excitation and energy in stress adaptation

"The interconnected fundamental features of cell excitation/relaxation, electrical potential, lactic acid/carbon dioxide, water retention/water loss, salt regulation, pH value, and energy level enable us to understand the biological significance of stress and adaptation in a coherent way. In interaction with these physicochemical events, there are many levels of biochemical and physiological processes that amplify or modify them, including regulatory systems such as hormones and other biological signaling substances, nutrient supply, and the type of fuel used."

1998 - Ray Peat’s Newsletter - 2

Effect of carbohydrates and salt on brain energy and relaxation

“The brain is like a muscle in that it must restore energy to relax. Many people have noticed that they become sleepy when they eat a lot of carbohydrates and/or salt. Both salt and carbohydrates tend to lower adrenaline, and carbohydrates can also increase thyroid hormone activity while restoring energy in tissues.”

April 1994 - Ray Peat’s Newsletter

Salt supplements to normalize pregnancy-related high blood pressure

“Two research projects showed that very high salt supplements reliably normalized high blood pressure in women with pregnancy toxemia.”

June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Anti-stress effect of GABA and protective mechanisms

“Meerson’s laboratory has studied the anti-stress and anti-adrenaline effects of GABA and its metabolite gamma-hydroxybutyrate, especially in the form of the lithium salt. (Lithium appears to have its own anti-stress effect, probably partly as a sodium agonist and partly through its ability to complex with ammonium, which forms in the brain during fatigue—just when the GABA system activates.) GHB acts protectively against stress-related damage in many tissues. It prevents stress-induced leakage of enzymes from tissues, gastric mucosal ulcerations, lipid peroxidation, epileptic seizures, impaired contractile heart function, and cardiac arrhythmias caused by stress or ischemia.”

June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Comprehensive list of protective nutritional chemicals

“A complete list of protective nutritional chemicals as well as natural medicines or analogs to our body's own protective factors would be very long, but we should pay special attention to certain substances. These include succinic acid, which stimulates respiration and the synthesis of protective steroids; thyroid and vitamin E, which promote normal oxidation while preventing abnormal oxidation; magnesium; sodium and lithium, which help us retain magnesium; tropical fruits that contain GHB; coconut oil, which protects against heart necrosis, lipid peroxidation, hypothyroidism, hypoglycemia, and histamine damage; Valium agonists, natural antihistamines; adenosine and uridine. Stays at higher altitudes and exposure to bright, long-wavelength light can prompt the body to optimize its own anti-stress chemistry. Avoiding the feeling of being trapped is a high-ranking adaptation factor.”

June 1992 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Increasing the organism's adaptability to toxins

"Aging, stress, and heavy alcohol consumption increase intestinal permeability, allowing greater absorption of microbial toxins. Laxatives, carrot fibers (not carrot juice), activated charcoal, and a small amount of sodium thiosulfate reduce the formation and absorption of toxins, thereby increasing the organism's adaptability. Belladonna can improve intestinal function if cramps occur during drug withdrawal."

June 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Hypertonic sodium chloride for treating various inflammations

"Hypertonic sodium chloride (Clifford White, Lancet, October 80, 1915) was also used to treat infected wounds, and its success in treating war injuries led to its use as a vaginal wash to treat various inflammations and infections, including infections related to childbirth, salpingitis, cellulitis, gonorrhea, vaginitis, cervical erosions, as well as to prepare a cancerous cervix for surgery."

July 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

PMS, edema, and previous treatments

"In PMS, edema is a common problem, and it was previously believed that edema in the brain was responsible for irritability, depression, or other nervous symptoms. Therefore, diuretics such as ammonium compounds and urea were often used. (Premenstrual salt craving is the result of estrogen-disrupted water balance, and salt restriction in PMS is as inappropriate as in preeclampsia or toxemia of pregnancy.)"

July 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter

Osmotic and biochemical effects in therapy

"Sodium chloride, glucose, and other substances can be used in high concentrations because of their osmotic effects, but they also have chemical and metabolic effects that are not necessarily desirable. In a given therapy, both osmotic and biochemical effects should be considered."

July 1991 - Ray Peat's Newsletter
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