Blood-brain barrier and cellular stress: evidence in the blood"The blood-brain barrier (BBB) has sometimes been considered something unique, but it is only a special case of cellular resilience that exists everywhere. For example, after intense exercise causing fatigue and muscle damage, a unique brain protein, S100B, considered a key component of the BBB, can be found in the bloodstream. The exchange of substances – even proteins and nucleic acids – between cells and their environment increases under stress. The detection of substances like S100B in the blood is now recognized as an indicator of depression and brain injury." September 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
SSRIs, serotonin myths, and the synthesis of allopregnanolone in the brain"Since it was not possible to provide evidence supporting the idea that serotonin is a mood-enhancing 'happiness hormone,' the industry has sought an explanation for the therapeutic benefit it claims. It has generally settled on the notion that SSRIs increase the synthesis of the progesterone metabolite allopregnanolone in the brain after several weeks of use. This does happen, but the synthesis of these protective steroids is also increased by any brain injury." September 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Cholesterol in the young compared to the aging brain"The healthy young brain contains a very large amount of cholesterol, almost all in the pure, non-esterified or free form – more than 99.5%, according to Orth and Bellosta (2012, citing Björkhem and Meaney, 2004). The aging, degenerating brain contains increasingly more esterified cholesterol." September 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Substance-promoted brain growth and efficient energy use"Progesterone, glucose, or glycine converted into glucose (Zamenhof and Ahmad, 1979) increased brain growth by either boosting the energy supply or the ability to use energy effectively." September 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Nervous systems process substances within ecosystems"Nervous systems process – like living systems in general – substances in a meaningful way, not just information. Every nervous system, every piece of living matter, exists as part of a larger life-sustaining system or ecosystem, and the larger system is shaped by how its components process substances." September 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of Increased Parathyroid Hormone on Body Tissues"When vitamin D or calcium are lacking or when phosphate is in excess – as well as in hypoglycemia and stress (Ljunghall et al., 1984) – parathyroid hormone rises. This can lead to softening of the bones and hardening of soft tissues, especially the arteries, sometimes also of the brain, skin, and other organs. Parathyroid hormone raises blood pressure, even before the calcium-induced stiffening is detected." September 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Benefits of coconut oil for the thyroid and health"The easily oxidizable short- and medium-chain saturated fatty acids in coconut oil provide an energy source that protects our tissue from the toxic, inhibitory effects of unsaturated fatty acids and reduces their thyroid-inhibiting effects. Animal studies over the last 60 years suggest that these effects also protect against cancer, heart disease, and premature aging. Other expected effects include protection against excessive blood clotting, protection of the fetal brain, protection against various stress-related problems including epilepsy, as well as some protection against sun damage to the skin." Nutrition For Women |
Progesterone as the predominant female hormone and its benefits for brain structure and function"Quantitatively, progesterone is the most important female hormone, and progesterone improves the structure and function of the brain." Nutrition For Women |
The influence of the environment on physical development"When our environment shrinks, when there is not enough food, we can adapt, for example by replacing muscle with fat and having babies with smaller brains (the brain is an energetically expensive organ, even though its efficiency increases with its expenditure). When our environment meets our needs, our brains and muscles grow. The lower leg (like the brain) is a good indicator of environmental support: parents who grew up in a population with atrophied-looking lower legs can have children with beautifully developed legs if milk becomes abundantly available." Nutrition For Women |
The role of the brain in storing favorable environmental features"The brain (and especially its frontal lobe tissue) is like a window into present and past environments. It stores as much as possible of past environments, but above all, it stores those aspects of the environment that appear favorable – those indicating abundance and possibilities." Nutrition For Women |
Brain efficiency and energetics over time"If a shrinking environment does not interfere, the passage of time leads to a brain state that is both more energetic and more efficient." Nutrition For Women |
The special properties of water in biological processes"Water is unusual in its ability for internal structural change and in its heat capacity. During cell division, muscle contraction, and nerve stimulation, heat is released (followed by heat absorption as muscle or nerve recovers), which cannot be explained by any known chemical change. Its order decreases with rising temperature unless order is introduced by other substances. (The brain has utilized and amplified these properties of water.)" Nutrition For Women |
Environmental influence on evolution and inheritance"The accumulation of environmental aspects in our tissues that change our tissues – their function and their affinity for various substances – is a short-term analogue to the general upward drift of evolution and currently has known and clear connections to inheritance: hormonal influences cross the placenta in both directions, and the mother's efficiency determines the fetus's supply of nutrients – e.g., sugar. Persistent modifications, transgenerational environmental influences, are visible in a wide variety of organisms and organs, but in the brain – the environmental organ – these Lamarckian effects are so visible and so crucial." Nutrition For Women |
Connection between social conditions, hormones, and brain size"Behavior influences hormones, and hormones influence behavior. Living in a 'rat cage' society makes brains smaller and causes people to do things that maintain the oppressive conditions. Nutritional and hormonal social interventions can change this." Nutrition For Women |
Connection between brain size, longevity, and health"It has been observed that the ratio of brain weight to body weight directly correlates with longevity. The brain has a nourishing, trophic influence on other tissues. A stable, efficient brain acts as an anti-stress factor." Nutrition For Women |
Stress Hormones, Nutrition, and Longevity"Stress hormones cause various tissues to age, including the brain and collagen in connective tissue. Good nutrition – including the anti-stress substances found in certain foods – will simultaneously optimize intelligence and increase healthy lifespan." Nutrition For Women |
The Effects of Vitamin E Deficiency on Tissue Function"With a vitamin E deficiency, certain tissues lose so much ATP that they can no longer function normally. Muscles cramp and can eventually harden and become dystrophic. Magnesium also helps maintain ATP levels and can be used, for example, to stop menstrual cramps. In an extreme case of vitamin E deficiency, reflexes become abnormal; in some animals, brain softening is the first symptom of a vitamin E deficiency." Nutrition For Women |
The role of the frontal lobes in expectation and planning"The highest part of the brain in terms of evolutionary history is the expectation/planning system in the frontal lobes. A delayed and appropriate response is impossible if these lobes do not function well. In a healthy animal, arousal means expectation: the longer arousal can be maintained without distraction, the higher the energy charge will be and the more intense and satisfying the completion." Nutrition For Women |
Endocrine Interactions and the Compensatory Role of the Thyroid Against Estrogen“The idea of physiological compensation is sometimes overlooked when interpreting endocrine interactions, leading to confusing results. The brain-pituitary system (not just the hypothalamus, since the whole brain and sensory system act as reflex setters) is probably the most important regulatory or compensatory system. When estrogen is injected into an animal, the level of thyroid-stimulating hormone rises (Brown-Grant, J. Endocr. 35, 263, 1966). This should be understood as an indication that the peripheral effect of estrogen can be compensated by thyroxine. If thyroid function is borderline, this would also suggest that increased estrogen might remain uncompensated peripherally. There are many known examples of a metabolic or functional opposition between estrogen and thyroid.” Nutrition For Women |
The Effects of Hypoxia and Hypoglycemia on the Fetal Brain“It is well known that hypoxia damages the fetal brain, but probably less known is that hypoglycemia – whether chronic or acute – can cause brain damage and developmental delays.” Nutrition For Women |
The Role of Progesterone Therapy in Preventing Brain Damage and Potentially Increasing IQ“In my opinion, the most urgent need for progesterone therapy is to prevent a persistent epidemic of brain damage. Furthermore, many studies have found that using natural progesterone increases a child’s IQ – typically by about 35 points (although there are claims of consistent IQs of 200) – and produces personalities that are more independent, individualistic, confident, self-sufficient, and sensitive.” Nutrition For Women |
Hypoglycemia: Effects on Brain and Immune Function“Hypoglycemia (which can result from any respiratory defect) can cause dysfunction in any tissue, but brain and immune system dysfunctions are very common consequences.” Nutrition For Women |
Different Effects of Progesterone and Cortisone on Blood Sugar, Brain Stability, and Brain Aging“Although progesterone and cortisone both raise blood sugar and stabilize lysosomes, their effects on the brain are very different: in high doses, progesterone acts as a sedative and anesthetic, while cortisone is stimulating – and cortisone causes changes in the brain that resemble aging.” Nutrition For Women |
Effects of Progesterone Treatment on Veins and Suicidal Depression"Just as veins on the forehead immediately shrink when a large amount of sugar is taken during a migraine, I have seen veins (on the back of the hand) disappear under progesterone treatment—exactly at the moment a suicidal depression lifts. This suggests that there might be a migraine-like situation in the blood vessels of the limbic system of the brain, but there are also very rapid shifts in brain chemistry." Nutrition For Women |
The importance of biotin for fat synthesis in the nervous system"Biotin is involved in fat synthesis in the nervous system and should therefore probably receive special attention in MS nutrition." Nutrition For Women |
Psychoactive substances and their effects on chronic conditions"During LSD research, it was observed that people with chronic headaches, asthma, or psoriasis sometimes fully recovered during treatment with frequent LSD doses. Another alkaloid derived from ergot, bromocriptine, is now used to suppress lactation (such as that caused by a prolactin-secreting pituitary tumor, which can develop after the use of oral contraceptives) and is experimentally used to treat Parkinson's disease. Both LSD and bromocriptine shift the balance of two brain chemicals, DOPA and serotonin, toward DOPA dominance. Effects include inhibition of prolactin secretion. Excess prolactin is involved in breast cancer and other cell proliferations, presumably also in the rapid cell division seen in psoriasis." Nutrition For Women |
Diabetes, pregnancy, and the supply to the fetal brain"It is known that diabetic women typically have large babies with large heads who learn quickly. With each pregnancy, a woman tends to have lower glucose tolerance or appear more diabetic. HCG, the hormone that helps maintain pregnancy, raises blood sugar to meet the fetus's demand for abundant sugar. Therefore, diabetes and pregnancy have much in common. And as a woman ages, she tends to be more prone to diabetes and thus tends to better supply the fetus, especially its brain. Aside from this natural tendency, a more mature woman is also less likely to live on snack foods." Nutrition For Women |
Maternal adaptation to fat and the fetus's glucose dependency"During pregnancy, the mother's body increasingly adapts to living off fat, so that most of the available sugar can be used by the baby. The brain consumes the majority of the body's glucose, so mental fatigue can easily affect blood sugar levels. The developing baby is highly dependent on glucose as an energy source, and its brain can be damaged by a lack of sugar." Nutrition For Women |
Destruction of Vitamin E by Iron Salts in Animal Feed“Around 1940, laboratory animals fed with a commercially produced feed began to show signs of vitamin E deficiency and died from brain softening. The manufacturers knew they had added vitamin E to the mix, but when they tested it, they found it contained none at all. It turned out that the iron salts added to the feed destroyed the vitamin E.” Nutrition For Women |
Brain Damage in Animals and Human Aggressiveness“It is known that brain-damaged animals become aggressive; could poisoning be a cause of human aggressiveness?” Nutrition For Women |
Nutritional Status and Its Different Effects on Body Tissues“The different tissues of the body can still function acceptably at different nutritional levels. For example, the skin, with its low energy demand, generally seems to remain alive for several hours after the body’s death. The brain, with its extremely high energy demand, is usually the first to suffer from energy deficiency. In mild deficiency states, the brain simply loses functional efficiency, but a more severe or prolonged deficiency can cause lasting changes or even structural damage that is relatively permanent (and may even have transgenerational effects).” Nutrition For Women |
The Special Sensitivity of the Front Part of the Brain for Function“The front part of the brain, which is most distinctly human (and the newest), but in the usual sense has no specific function, is one of the most sensitive parts of the brain. It is a very large piece of tissue and seems to be involved in planning and decision-making and controlling the other, more specific functions. (This part of the brain – as well as the cerebral cortex in general – gives us the ability to ignore stimuli, to use Lendon Smith’s expression.)” Nutrition For Women |
The Effect of Weak Radiation on Metabolic Efficiency and the Sensitivity of Brain Tissue“Many forms of very weak radiation can reduce metabolic efficiency, thereby increasing its energy demand, and brain tissue is – at least to some types of radiation – the most sensitive tissue.” Nutrition For Women |
High Coffee Consumption and Improved Blood Flow to the Brain“Coffee improves blood flow to the brain; Benjamin Franklin and Goethe are said to have drunk 30 to 65 cups daily. This amount would be close to the maximum safe daily caffeine dose of 6 grams.” Nutrition For Women |
Small Caffeine Doses and Their Sedative Effect on the Brain“Very small doses of caffeine have a paradoxical sedative effect, but this is a known effect of anything that raises the brain’s energy level.” Nutrition For Women |
The Effect of Caffeine on the Sympathetic Nervous System and cAMP Levels“Caffeine (which does not necessarily have the same physiological effect as coffee) stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and increases the cellular level of cyclic AMP.” Nutrition For Women |
The Role of Caffeine for the Immune System and Possible Anti-Cancer Properties"Caffeine can increase immunity – both through nerves and directly. When injected into the brain of an animal, it was found to slow cancer growth. Recently, it was accidentally discovered that a very small amount of caffeine, mixed with the tars from cigarette smoke, prevented this material from causing cancer." Nutrition For Women |
The influence of vitamin C on tyrosine metabolism and adrenaline levels in tissue"Tyrosine metabolism, which is involved in brain function, is sensitive to vitamin C; moreover, vitamin C maintains adrenaline levels in tissue, possibly by inhibiting its oxidation, and adrenaline is necessary for chalones to perform their function of inhibiting cell division." Nutrition For Women |
The importance of saturated fats for brain development"Recent studies show that animal fats (saturated) are essential for proper brain development and that unsaturated fats (as found in typical infant formulas) can damage brain development." Nutrition For Women |
The high energy consumption of an active brain"An active brain can burn about half of the total energy consumed by the body. When brain activity is dampened, a very large portion of the food intake becomes available for fat formation." Nutrition For Women |
Amphetamines and their effects on appetite and hyperactivity"Amphetamines mimic the effect of the alarm part of the nervous system (sympathetic) and thereby increase blood sugar levels; this is probably the mechanism (or part of it) that suppresses appetite. Low blood sugar is associated with hyperactivity, and this is presumably why the same medication is effective for the hundreds of thousands of crazy children who receive it to sit still in school; coffee works just as well for hyperactivity and might also help with weight loss." Nutrition For Women |
Energy consumption of the brain during active versus boring exercise"In Russia, physiologists always consider the brain in their calculations, and it turns out that a walk through an interesting and pleasant environment consumes more energy than harder but more boring exercise. An active brain consumes an enormous amount of fuel." Nutrition For Women |
The role of brain activity in strengthening muscles"In the last century, Sechenov discovered that training one hand not only strengthens that hand but also the other. Brain activity stimulates growth and change in tissues, for example, muscles." Nutrition For Women |
Gender-specific differences in brain superiority and imbalance"At first glance, this female superiority of the brain – if we base it on the general mammalian understanding of the brain-to-body weight ratio – seems to be a devaluation of men. However, the perspective I propose also attributes a certain strength to the male imbalance itself." Nutrition For Women |
Misconceptions about Thyroxine and Thyroid Hormone Treatments"When pure thyroxine became available and replaced the use of dried thyroid for treating hypothyroidism, it led to two very important misconceptions that were deeply adopted into medical practice. It was decided that no more than 5% of the population had a thyroid hormone deficiency, and experiments were used to argue that thermogenesis as well as increased metabolism and oxygen consumption were not important effects of the hormone, because the liver was the only organ that increased its oxygen consumption when thyroxine was added, and because added thyroxine lowered the brain's oxygen consumption. The error was defining thyroxine as the thyroid hormone. The liver is the main organ that converts thyroxine into the active thyroid hormone triiodothyronine, T3, so it could metabolically respond to thyroxine." November 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Low Cholesterol and Effects on Mental Health"Low serum cholesterol has been linked to depression, suicide, violence, and increased cancer mortality. Since statins enter the brain and inhibit cholesterol synthesis there, reduced mitochondrial function is undoubtedly a factor in the psychological side effects they can cause." November 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Synergy of Cholesterol and Progesterone"The functions of cholesterol resemble those of progesterone in many ways. For example, in the pregnant uterus, the relaxing function of progesterone is supported by cholesterol (Smith et al., 2005). In the brain, nerve excitation by glutamic acid is controlled by a uptake protein that binds this neurotransmitter, and the function of this protein depends on cholesterol; a reduction in cholesterol prolongs nerve excitation." November 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Excitatory Signaling and Cholesterol in the Brain"Excitatory signaling appears to contribute to the loss of cholesterol in the brain during aging; the amount of cholesterol in synapses decreases with age (Sodero et al., 2011). Although excitatory (glutamatergic) stimulation lowers cholesterol in the brain, environmental enrichment (meaningful experience) increases it (Levi et al., 2005) and also reverses the age-related decline of cholesterol-derived neurosteroids." November 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Accumulation of Cholesterol Esters and Neurodegeneration"In the brain, the accumulation of cholesterol esters (at the expense of free cholesterol) increases with age and contributes to neurodegeneration. An intervention that releases cholesterol from fatty acids has a neuroprotective effect in a worm model of Parkinson's disease." November 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Prenatal Influences on Brain Development and Adaptability"Experiments over the last 60 years have shown that more or less glucose, carbon dioxide, heat, and progesterone during embryonic and fetal development can influence brain growth as well as how the brain controls later development and adaptability." November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Role of the Nervous System in Early Development"From a very early developmental stage, the nervous system coordinates tissue interactions." November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Brain Survival Mechanisms in Stressful Environmental Interactions"In mediating adaptation, the brain directs the organism toward those aspects of the environment most likely to satisfy its needs, and this includes judgments about possible future situations. When good prospects are lacking, the brain engages in defensive changes, increases stress hormones and fight-or-flight mechanisms, and begins converting part of its own tissue into energy and materials needed for the survival of its essential organs: brain, lungs, and heart." November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Role of the Nervous System in Emotional Stress and Survival"Emotional stress is organized by the nervous system and alters hormones and cell functions that improve immediate survival." November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Constant Remodeling and Reconstruction of Body Tissues"All tissues of the body, including the brain, undergo constant remodeling and reconstruction." November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Cell Division-Inhibiting Effect of Stimulants on Cancer Cells and Tumor Growth"This effect of stimulants is likely also involved in their inhibition of cell division in cultured cancer cells (for example ephedrine and theophylline) as well as in caffeine’s ability, when injected into the brain, to slow tumor growth elsewhere in the body." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Gut Disorders and Nervous System Diseases: The Role of Toxins"Gut irritations can cause nervous system disorders and should be considered as a possibility in attention disorders. Toxins produced by gut bacteria can directly affect the brain but more often act by impairing the liver's ability to regulate blood sugar." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Circadian Rhythms of Brain Activity and Mental Health: The Role of Light and Pineal Gland Stimulation"Since the average person has pronounced circadian cycles of brain activity (reflecting an appropriate concentration of brain amines) and many psychotics show flattened cycles – with disturbed sleep as well as disturbed waking consciousness – cyclical light stimulation of the skin and head might be desirable to support regular cyclical activity of the pineal gland and the brain." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Biological Effects of Magnetic Fields: Sedation and Changes in Brain Chemistry"Magnetic fields presumably act biologically by affecting the structure of water, and Kholodov has shown that a continuous sinusoidal magnetic field has a sedative and inhibitory effect, alters the EEG, and increases the GABA level in the brain (Speranskiy, 1973). Oxygen activity increases in magnetically treated water (Speranskiy, 1973), so there could be a direct effect on energy production." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Nervism in Russian Medicine: The Role of the Brain in Illness and Recovery"Ritis, polyarteritis, and osteoarthritis. The old tradition of Russian medicine, Nervism, which reminded doctors that the brain must always be considered a factor in illness and recovery, was enriched by the work of Pavlov and his successors. The most valuable lesson of this tradition for American medicine might be its optimism, based on the idea of plasticity." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Regeneration in Neuropsychological Disorders: Evidence of Nerve Tissue Renewal"Some of these treatments for neuropsychological diseases also promote regeneration, growth, and proliferation of nerve cells. Filatov, Polezhaev, and others have clearly demonstrated the regeneration of nerve tissue in the brain, cerebral cortex, and optic nerve." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Brain Amines in Hypoxia: Effects on Sleep, Wakefulness, and Respiratory Adaptation"Brain amines seem to support these ordered states – clarity in wakefulness as well as the firmness of sleep require sufficient amines. In rats made hypoxic, monoamine oxidase activity decreases, and respiratory effectiveness apparently increases adaptively (Khvatova, Rubanova, and Zhilina, Voprosy Meditsinskoy Khimii 19(1), 3–5, 1973). The administration of monoamine oxidase inhibitors improves mice's resistance to hypoxia (Piskarev et al., Farmakologiy i Toksikologiya 36(1), 48–54, 1973)." Mind And Tissue Russian Research Perspectives on the Human Brain |
Progesterone and Vitamin D in the Restoration of Nerve Function"Studies on progesterone's effect on the restoration of nerve function after traumatic brain injuries have shown that vitamin D enhances its effectiveness. By improving calcium homeostasis and counteracting the effects of parathyroid hormone, which activates calcium channels, vitamin D (25-hydroxycholecalciferol) is increasingly regarded as a neurosteroid (Groves et al., 2014; Gezen-Ak and Dursun, 2019) – as well as an essential factor for immunity." May 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone's Effect on the Allopregnanolone Level in the Brain“Taking progesterone reliably increases the allopregnanolone content in the brain. Even a small oral dose of progesterone triples (196% increase) the concentration of allopregnanolone (Andréen et al., 2006). Supplementation with pregnenolone also increases allopregnanolone.” May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Estrogen boosts serotonin synthesis in the brain“Estrogen increases the brain’s ability to synthesize serotonin.” May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of pregnancy on women’s brain structure“In women, MRI scans (Hoekzema et al., 2017) show that the brain’s gray matter shrinks significantly during pregnancy – similar to changes caused by advanced aging – and in some women, these changes were still present after two years. However, another study found a very rapid restoration of brain structure in the second month after birth. In these healthy women, brain recovery during this two-month period corresponded to a rejuvenation of five years (Luders et al., 2018).” May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone levels after birth and brain restoration“In healthy women, progesterone is significantly higher after birth than before pregnancy – seven times higher in plasma, three times higher in cerebrospinal fluid (Datta et al., 1986). This corresponds to the period of brain restoration.” May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Positive effects of progesterone on brain development“Many studies over the last 60 years have shown the positive effects of progesterone on brain development: it enlarges the brain, increases the thickness of the cerebral cortex, enhances resilience to injury, and improves functional quality.” May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Prenatal estrogen and effects on brain size“Prenatally, an excess of estrogen inhibits cell growth, which leads to a smaller brain with a thinner cerebral cortex at birth. In adult animals, it can cause seizures and excitotoxic cell death.” May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone After Birth and Brain Health“With insufficient cholesterol, the normally high progesterone concentration after birth is probably not maintained. Instead of brain restoration, the various proinflammatory effects of serotonin and estrogen then predominate – with consequences such as depression, joint pain, anxiety, and brain edema.” May 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Societal repression of childhood trauma and brain damage“Frances Tustin wrote that there is a persistent societal repression in American society of the causes of harm to millions of children, who are traumatized and suffer brain damage as a result of cruel treatment by parents who are otherwise too busy to love and care for their babies. A study on adopted Romanian babies confirmed the observations of many people from earlier decades that impersonal treatment in orphanages harms many of the children.” May 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Brain Energy Consumption in Adaptation and Simplification“The brain has an extremely high metabolic rate and uses energy to adapt to the constant influx of sensory information from the body and environment. When energy is lacking, it reduces and simplifies. With full energy, it builds a continuous model of itself and the things it interacts with – and each of these is a process. In a state of mental energy deficiency, things become categories rather than processes, and they no longer occupy space in an ongoing life story.” May 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Anti-Excitotoxic Substances and the Importance of the CO₂/Lactate Ratio“Anti-excitotoxic substances include progesterone, memantine, minocycline, and agmatine. A high ratio of CO₂ to lactate, which lowers intracellular pH, is important to prevent excessive excitability. Thyroid hormone increases – besides directly boosting energy and the CO₂/lactate ratio – the brain’s temperature and raises the ratio of progesterone to estrogen.” May 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Therapeutic Development of Carbon Dioxide“Carbon dioxide was once considered a hormone and medically used for ulcers, arthritis, cancer, and mental health issues. Yandell Henderson’s work led to its use as carbogen (5% CO₂, 95% O₂) for resuscitation. But by mid-century, most therapeutic applications were discontinued; hospitals were instructed to use pure oxygen instead of carbogen, and patients with brain swelling were hyperventilated with oxygen to lower their blood carbon dioxide.” March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Decline in the Use of Urea for Treating Brain Injuries“As late as the 1950s, urea was recognized as the most effective treatment for brain swelling. However, the scientifically based membrane theory concluded that the removal of water from cells is always controlled by osmosis, and since urea could remove water from cells, it must be osmotically active. As an osmolyte, it was added to distilled water for intravenous use, and the red blood cells then behaved as they would in distilled water: they dissolved. The report that urea causes hemolysis led to its use in treating brain injuries being generally discontinued.” March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of CO₂ on Muscle Contraction and Brain Blood Flow"In the 1950s, Gilbert Ling found that at increased carbon dioxide concentration, a certain stimulus triggers less muscle contraction than at a lower carbon dioxide concentration. Around the same time, Russian physiologists discovered that the CO₂ produced by active brain cells relaxes the blood vessels in the brain – including the capillaries – thereby increasing blood flow relative to rising metabolic demands." March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Transgenerational burden and health consequences"Many things considered non-toxic and non-carcinogenic today are likely harmful if exposure continues over several generations. Impaired brain development in infants, allergies, and autoimmune diseases have been proven to arise from a wide variety of causes – from radiation to mild chronic stress." March 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Immune system: restoration or inflammation"Our so-called immune system detects unfavorable changes in the structural-energetic system and responds quietly to restore the system: it removes abnormal structures and supports the restoration of function. If the organism's condition is poor, instead of invisible restoration, inflammation occurs – a process in which rough provisional repairs are made so that the damaged tissue no longer demands resources that are unavailable. A scar forms; relatively inert, fibrotic tissue replaces fully functional tissue. This happens progressively under continued stress from harmful factors and gradually impairs the lungs, heart, blood vessels, gonads, liver, kidneys, brain…." March 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Brain function as a cybernetic control system"Those who follow Norbert Wiener's example and view the brain more as a cybernetic control system rather than a logic machine have a fruitful model that can represent the brain as it undergoes various state changes." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Metabolic changes during sleep in organisms"The entire organism sleeps, even though the brain regulates the process. In some aspects of its metabolism – especially in the turnover of phospholipids – the brain is very active during sleep, yet its energy consumption decreases, and it ensures that the skeletal muscles relax, thereby reducing their glucose consumption." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
In vitro resonance of brain cells with sleep rhythms"Groups of brain cells taken from a brain and observed in vitro interact in a way that resembles the resonance of electrons in molecules or of molecules in physical objects: their electrical activity gradually becomes coordinated and produces electrical signals similar to the EEG signal (electroencephalogram) of a brain in the slow-wave (deep) sleep state." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Independent Onset of Sleep Rhythm in Individual Brain Regions"A small area of the brain can enter the sleep rhythm earlier than other areas if it has been more strongly stimulated." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
High-Energy Resting States of the Brain and ATP Content of Muscle"The electrical and metabolic properties of this high-energy resting state of the brain can be observed in healthy skeletal muscle: it has a high ATP content and relaxes immediately after stimulation and contraction. When ATP is depleted by prolonged intense stimulation or not replenished quickly enough – as in hypothyroidism – relaxation is very slow, leading to cramps." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Impact of Hypothyroidism on Sleep and Cell Activity"Since thyroid hormone is required throughout the body for oxidative metabolism, a deficiency causes brain cells to relax slowly. This delays the onset of sleep and can even prevent the deepest, most restorative sleep. Because all cells are regulated by excitatory and inhibitory processes, hypothyroidism can also create a tendency toward excitatory states, which can lead to abnormal secretion and proliferation, for example." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
How Sleep Begins in the Brain"Sleep begins in the cerebral cortex and spreads to other parts of the brain and body." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Role of Mitochondria in Nocturnal Brain Function"Optimizing mitochondrial function at the beginning of the night makes the brain's inhibitory signals more effective, preserves glycogen stores, and reduces nocturnal catabolism." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Nocturnal Lipid Turnover in the Brain and Fatty Acid Dynamics"The nocturnal rise of free fatty acids in the serum coincides with a high turnover rate of the brain's phospholipids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are preferentially released from fat stores – in proportion to their degree of unsaturation (Raclot, 2003; Conner et al., 1996). Their exchange with the brain's lipids means that the brain is enriched every night with the highly unsaturated fats most susceptible to lipid peroxidation." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Influence of the Gut and Treatments for Parkinson's"The gut can influence the brain, and we have discovered a variety of factors that damage the substantia nigra and thereby cause Parkinson's disease. Some behaviors – drinking coffee or alcohol, smoking, using aspirin – significantly reduce the risk. These observations suggest that there are effective ways to treat Parkinson's with diet, laxatives, and anti-inflammatory substances." March 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Role of Endotoxin in the Activation of Inflammatory Processes"Endotoxin, lipopolysaccharide, has a generally excitatory effect that activates cellular inflammatory processes and damages energy production – mediated by cellular products such as nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, serotonin, histamine, prostaglandins, estrogens, and various cytokines (interleukins and tumor necrosis factor, TNF). Some of these substances enter the bloodstream from the gut, others are produced elsewhere in the body, and some are formed in the brain itself when endotoxin is taken up into the brain." March 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Age-related changes in the brain, intensified by estrogen"With aging, iron and polyunsaturated fats accumulate in the brain. Estrogen slows the breakdown of dopamine, thereby increasing the chance that it reacts toxically with iron and highly unsaturated fats – especially arachidonic acid and DHA. It also tends to increase the formation of prostaglandins and nitric oxide. The opposite effects of progesterone likely explain why Parkinson’s disease is less common in women than in men." March 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of the brain in overall health"The brain is a factor in every disease or injury, and when the brain does not function properly, every other system is affected." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Protective effect of progesterone in the brain"Animal studies since the 1950s have clearly shown the protective, stabilizing, and restorative effects of progesterone on the brain, and the direct effects of progesterone on brain cells have been demonstrated in vitro." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone Protects Organs"All organs affected by a brain injury – kidneys, lungs, gut, heart, liver, blood vessels, thymus, bones and bone marrow, as well as endocrine glands – are protected by progesterone." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Overlooked Effects of Stress on the Gut"Although the effects of stress on the gut have been known since Hans Selye described the general adaptation syndrome (with gut bleeding as an early stress sign), this was not considered in any of the major studies on traumatic brain injury or stroke." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Connection Between Brain Inflammation and Organs"The inflammatory, degenerative processes in the brain take several hours to develop, and during these hours, stress signals from the brain cause changes in the gut that lead to a systemic inflammatory state." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Toxicity of Free Fatty Acids"Free fatty acids – especially when they are polyunsaturated – are toxic to the brain: they promote inflammation and block energy metabolism." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Individual needs after brain injuries"Every person with a traumatic brain injury has individual needs that poorly fit the stereotypical treatments used in clinical studies. Nevertheless, there are common features of every brain injury, and these overlap with the characteristics of various types of shock as well as with degenerative processes in certain organs." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The protective role of progesterone"Progesterone (and its metabolites, including allopregnanolone) protects against the harmful changes caused by brain injury." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Urea's lost role in brain treatment"Fifty years ago, urea was widely used to treat brain injuries, but a misunderstanding of its physical properties – and now the availability of highly profitable vaptans – have displaced it." March 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Role of free tryptophan in serotonin production in the brain"Increased free tryptophan in the blood is the main factor determining serotonin production in the brain. And free fatty acids produced by stress cause bound tryptophan in the blood to be released from albumin." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Misconception about sugar and tryptophan's effect in the brain"Almost everyone in the USA knows the claim that sugar relaxes and makes you sleepy because it helps tryptophan enter the brain. In fact, it is hypoglycemia – which triggers irritability and anxiety – that increases tryptophan uptake into the brain." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Enzymatic control of serotonin synthesis in the brain"The synthesis of serotonin in the brain depends on the activity of the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH). This enzyme is activated by cell excitation – with increased intracellular calcium and reduced glutathione (GSH) – and inactivated by oxidation of glutathione." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Serotonin balance: synthesis vs. breakdown"The amount of serotonin in the brain at a given time is influenced by various factors that alter the balance between its synthesis and its storage or breakdown. The so-called serotonin transporter binds and holds serotonin, thereby reducing its interactions with other cell components. The enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO) breaks down serotonin and converts it into the inactive 5-HIAA." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Correlation of serotonin levels in different tissues"It has been shown that the amount of serotonin in urine, blood, and brain are closely correlated." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Serotonin's dual effect on blood vessels and inflammation"Although its name, serotonin, is based on its ability to constrict blood vessels, it also increases their permeability. Both effects contribute to its role in fatigue and inflammation – as well as to the therapeutic effects of serotonin antagonists in various conditions, including arthritis (Cloutier et al., 2012) and traumatic brain injury." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Increase in serotonin after exertion and brain permeability"Strenuous exercise that increases serotonin reduces the brain's ability to exclude harmful substances – including small particles." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effect of endotoxin on serotonin in the brain and the enzyme IDO"When large amounts of serotonin are released into the serum due to endotoxin, the serotonin level in the brain does not necessarily increase. Endotoxin induces a tryptophan-degrading enzyme in the brain, IDO, producing substances that can be proinflammatory and immunosuppressive." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Serotonin’s pathway: From the gut to effects in the brain"Processes in the gut, where most serotonin is produced, in the blood, where it is transported, and in the lungs, where a large part of it is detoxified, influence the brain. Toxins produced by gut bacteria cause serotonin to be released into the bloodstream, and if platelets cannot hold it tightly enough until the lungs can eliminate it, some of it reaches the brain, where it impairs sleep and other brain functions." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Brain-stabilizing effects of carbon dioxide"Since carbon dioxide has stabilizing effects in the brain, including relaxing blood vessels, a loss of carbon dioxide leads to vessel constriction, insufficient supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain, and thus a reduced metabolic rate." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Indications of brain redox balance in mental disorders"MRI can also directly measure the brain’s redox balance (NAD/NADH), and it has been found that people with schizophrenia and bipolar disorders have lower ratios – meaning their cells are less well oxidized. Even before cognitive impairment develops, people who later develop Alzheimer’s experience reductive stress." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Therapeutic potential of the direct application of carbon dioxide"The direct application of carbon dioxide is likely helpful in all situations known to benefit from acetazolamide – but without the risk of an allergy to this medication: traumatic brain edema, altitude sickness, osteoporosis, epilepsy, glaucoma, hyperactivity (ADHD), inflammation, intestinal polyps, and arthritis. Diabetes, cardiomyopathy (Torella et al., 2014), obesity (Arechederra et al., 2013), cancer, dementia, and psychoses are also likely to benefit." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Overexcitation in cancer physiology"An important part of cancer physiology is the overexcitation of the brain, especially the hypothalamus." July 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Metabolic shifts under extreme stress and learned helplessness"When the organism as a whole is overloaded and the stress physiology shifts into states of learned helplessness™ or shock, its metabolism shifts towards a reductive, pseudo-hypoxic metabolism, in which the nervous system suppresses oxidative metabolism." July 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Stress-related parasympathetic dysfunction and tumors"In severe, prolonged stress, the body's stress-limiting parasympathetic nervous system can become counterproductive and promote excitotoxicity, inflammation, and tumor growth." July 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Early stress influences lifespan and brain development"Reduced energy production as a compensation for stress early in life determines the quality of pregnancy and the developmental life course. It limits brain size, the ability to generate and use energy, and lifespan." January 2021 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Brain's independent progesterone synthesis and its function"Progesterone is an essential factor for nerve growth. Since the 1990s, it has been known that the brain synthesizes it itself and maintains a local progesterone concentration higher than that in the bloodstream." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
A larger brain is linked to intelligence and longevity"In animals in general, a larger brain is associated not only with higher intelligence but also with greater longevity." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of progesterone in brain energy processes"A fundamental part of progesterone's ability to protect the brain from stress probably lies in its support of the energy-intensive mitochondrial oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Sensitivity of the cerebral cortex to energy status"The cerebral cortex of the brain, especially the frontal lobes, is the part most sensitive to sufficient or insufficient energy." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Russian nervous system theories challenging traditional models"A Russian approach to the nervous system, as represented by P. K. Anochin, developed an understanding similar to Wiener's. Anochin pointed out physiological processes incompatible with the telegraphic all-or-nothing model of nerve function." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone's effect on the reticular activating system"The reticular activating system of the brainstem, responsible for wakeful attention and muscle relaxation, is central to the orienting reflex and responds to progesterone." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone increases REM sleep and indicates continuous orientation"It has been suggested (Sanford et al., 1993) that the presence of these waves in REM sleep indicates that the brain is in a state of more or less continuous orientation. When progesterone is given during sleep, it increases the proportion of REM." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
High glucose consumption of the brain"When a person is physically inactive, the brain consumes about 60% of the body's glucose. And because of its dependence on glucose, it is easily damaged even by short phases of hypoglycemia." January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Daily Cycle of Glycogen in the Brain“The amount of glycogen in tissues follows a daily cycle – especially in the brain, where it decreases during the day and is replenished at night.” January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Cortisol Response to Low Glycogen Stores“If there is not enough glycogen stored in the liver, muscles, and other tissues to meet the brain’s nighttime glucose needs, cortisol rises. It breaks down tissue proteins to provide amino acids and glucose, and this nighttime stress also increases free fatty acids.” January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Increase in the Brain with Age“As the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids increases with age, arachidonic acid is incorporated into the brain, among others. Especially at night, the highly unsaturated fatty acids enhance excitatory processes, including the formation of prostaglandins and other pro-inflammatory compounds.” January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Carbohydrates in the Evening or Night Lower Cortisol“If a large part of the daily carbohydrate intake occurs late in the day or even at night, it can help replenish glycogen in the brain – with less need for cortisol. This also helps reduce the nighttime rise of free fatty acids and their excitatory-inflammatory effects.” January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Central Role of Steroid Hormones in Animal Physiology“Steroid hormones are involved in all aspects of animal physiology and overlap with regulatory functions of the nervous system, peptide hormones, metabolites, prostaglandins, cyclic nucleotides, etc.” Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
The Role of Progesterone in Calming Cells and Preventing Seizures“Part of progesterone’s protective effect is based on its calming effect on cells. For example, it tends to prevent seizure activity in brain cells. During birth, its normal function is to act as an anesthetic.” – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Higher Brain Levels of Certain Hormones Decline with Age“The brain contains significantly more pregnenolone, DHEA, and progesterone than other organs or the blood, and these levels progressively decline with age.” – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Skin and Brain as Overlooked Sites of Steroid Synthesis“The skin and brain are important sites of steroid synthesis and are usually overlooked by endocrinologists studying steroid hormones.” – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Reexamining the Link Between Larger Brain and Longevity“Sacher popularized the idea that a larger brain is associated with a longer lifespan, and others have recently refined this idea further – in connection with body size, cephalization index, and metabolic rate.” – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Positive Effects of Progesterone on Brain Growth"Marion Diamond, who studied the effects of stimulation on rat brain development, found that pregnancy or treatment with progesterone – similar to freedom and stimulation – caused the brain to grow, while estrogen – similar to stress – caused it to shrink." – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Neotenous effects of progesterone on human traits"The effects of progesterone are neotenous, in the sense of extending youthful traits. Compared to men, women have several neotenous features, including a higher ratio of brain to lean body mass, a smaller ratio of face to skull, differences in voice and body hair, less aggressiveness, and greater adaptability. (Despite those who teach assertiveness, I think that high adaptability and low aggressiveness are characteristic human and primate traits typical of infants and likely represent the future of our species.)" – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Optimizing Energy Production for Regenerative Abilities"If we optimize the known factors that improve energy production (for example, red light, short- and medium-chain saturated fats, and pregnenolone) so that our metabolism resembles that of a ten-year-old child, I see no reason to assume that we do not have the regenerative and healing abilities typical at that age. I suspect that both brain growth and its remodeling could continue indefinitely." – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Brain atrophy in connection with certain stress conditions"Instead of a programmed or random continuous cell loss, brain atrophy, when it occurs, seems to be caused by certain conditions – for example, stress with prolonged exposure to glucocorticoid hormones." – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
Julien de la Mettrie's physiology based on organ functions"Based on various biological facts – including the independent mobility or excitability of the gut and heart as well as the regeneration of a hydra from small fragments – Julien de la Mettrie proposed a new kind of physiology based on the idea of organization. He believed that thinking was as natural for an organ with the structure of the brain as beating is for the heart. He regarded thinking as fully compatible with organized matter." – Generative Energy Restoring The Wholeness Of Life |
High energy demand of the brain and nutritional needs"The brain is an energetically very expensive organ in terms of its energy needs, and the liver must be very efficient to meet this demand. So if there is a nutritional or hormonal problem, the issues can be particularly pronounced. The need for sugar, protein, vitamins, and minerals can be very high." – Email response from Ray Peat |
Effects of Nutrient Deficiencies on Neurological Imbalances"The imbalances of endorphins, serotonin, catecholamines, and other nerve regulators observed in autism can sometimes also arise in adults due to a combination of exhaustion and poor nutrition. And when liver glycogen is depleted, it can be difficult to restore balance. Various prenatal influences could damage connectivity, although the cells still survive. Normally, a large proportion of brain cells die before birth because glucose is only available in limited amounts." – Email Response from Ray Peat |
Mineral Deposits in the Senile Brain and Aluminum in the Diet"The senile brain accumulates a variety of mineral deposits, and it has been argued that aluminum from the diet is the cause of Alzheimer's disease. It would be good to remove added aluminum from public water systems and our foods, but there is good evidence that other processes underlie the accumulation of aluminum and other minerals in our tissues." February 2001 |
Calcium and iron deposits in mitochondria and diseases"Calcium and iron tend to be deposited together, and mitochondria are usually the starting points of this deposition. Iron overload has been linked to heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and many other degenerative diseases, including brain disorders." February 2001 |
Estrogen and Its Interaction with Albumin in Uptake by Brain Cells"Protein-bound estrogen is an active form of estrogen, and estrogen bound to albumin presumably accounts for the largest part of estrogen activity. Free fatty acids, which compete with estrogen for binding to steroid-binding globulin, likely alter the properties of the abundant albumin so that it binds more estrogen in its active form. This shifts estrogen from other proteins, lipoproteins, and red blood cells to the activated albumin. The presence of albumin-bound fats makes albumin more lipophilic ("fat-loving"), and molecules are taken up by cells—especially brain cells—according to their fat solubility. There is no blood-brain barrier for fat-soluble molecules." February 2001 |
Toxic Effects of Serotonin and Nitric Oxide on Brain Cells"Serotonin does not cure depression, and both serotonin and nitric oxide impair blood flow and are toxic to brain cells. Both poison mitochondrial respiration." February 2001 |
Natural Antagonists in the Treatment of Degenerative Brain Diseases"Antiendorphin, antiexcitotoxic, anticholinergic, antiserotonergic, antiprostaglandin, and antiglucocorticoid drugs have been used with good effect in various degenerative diseases of the nervous system, but all these so-called 'anti' drugs are imprecise antagonists and have many side effects. Natural antagonists and nutrients are mostly helpful. Protein, sodium, magnesium, carbon dioxide/bicarbonate, progesterone, thyroid hormone, vitamins, etc., can have healing effects in many brain diseases." February 2001 |
Neuroprotective and mitochondria-supporting effects of progesterone"In addition to its antiestrogenic effect, progesterone is a neurosteroid, an antiexcitotoxic, and an inhibitory modulator. However, these effects in the nervous system have parallels in the immune system, where it modulates the activities of many cells: it protects the thymus, slows mast cell degranulation, and inhibits the shock reaction. It is an antitoxin that stabilizes cell structure and function. In the mitochondria, it maintains or restores respiratory efficiency." March 2000 |
Defective mitochondrial respiration in diseases of various organs"It is now well recognized that impaired mitochondrial respiration is a central factor in diseases of the muscles, brain, liver, kidneys, and other organs." July 2000 |
Hypothyroidism and excessive activity of the adrenergic nervous system"In hypothyroidism, the adrenergic nervous system tends to be overactive, and adrenaline production is maintained at a high level even when there is no external reason for it – because it is needed in the inefficient metabolic state of hypothyroidism to ensure adequate blood sugar and energy levels." January 2000 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of CO₂ loss on brain blood flow and effects of hyperventilation"The loss of carbon dioxide reduces blood flow to the brain and can cause complex paresthesias as well as stroke symptoms. Hyperventilation is a relative term and refers to the amount of carbon dioxide lost from the blood. Heavy, rapid breathing at high altitude or in a carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere is not necessarily hyperventilation." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Limiting effect of carbon dioxide on the overexcitation of nerves and muscles"Carbon dioxide limits the electrical depolarization of nerves and muscles – a phenomenon first discovered by Gilbert Ling. This prevents overexcitation and exhaustion of brain cells and muscle cells, including the heart. The presence of carbon dioxide limits the formation of lactic acid. This explains the lactate paradox during exertion at high altitude." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Alzheimer’s disease: brain respiratory metabolism and CO₂ deficiency"In Alzheimer’s disease, the brain’s respiratory metabolism is inhibited. This leads to a carbon dioxide deficiency alongside an excess of lactic acid and ammonia." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Metabolic and inflammatory processes in Alzheimer’s and multiple sclerosis"Both Alzheimer’s and multiple sclerosis are associated with reduced brain metabolism combined with an inflammatory process." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Connection between lactic acid, CO₂, and degenerative brain diseases"If an excess of lactic acid in brain tissue is typical for Alzheimer’s and multiple sclerosis, then the lactate paradox suggests that a slightly higher retention of carbon dioxide in the brains of Kashmir residents would offset chronic excitotoxic effects. This would suppress the stress metabolism that leads to degenerative brain diseases." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Sodium, progesterone, and glucose in brain development"In the fetus and newborn, sodium promotes growth. Progesterone, sodium, and glucose are often limiting factors for the baby's brain growth; when they are lacking, cells die instead of growing." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 4 |
Carbon dioxide as a protective factor in brain hypoxia"In many situations, including brain hypoxia, carbon dioxide is the critical protective factor." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 4 |
Role of carbon dioxide in preventing edema and water retention"The 'water-saturated' state seen in shock or stress in blood vessels, lungs, and other organs, as well as brain edema and lens opacities (cataracts) that follow various types of metabolic disorders, seem to be associated with the uptake of free water – while at the same time bound (non-freezable) water is lost. Carbon dioxide appears to promote water binding and protects against edematous conditions." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
Internal carbon dioxide production and brain development"In times of lower atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, our Krebs cycle still produces it internally, and the rapid brain development during pregnancy uses the high carbon dioxide concentration in the uterus." 1997 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Reproductive aging, hypothalamic regulation, and hormonal support"About 30 years ago, researchers began to understand that reproductive aging is not caused by a lack of eggs, and that the aged uterus could support a pregnancy if it received the right hormonal support. The focus turned to the brain cells in the hypothalamus that regulate the pituitary gland." August/September 1995 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Stress, estrogen, and the role of the brain in menopause and aging"Stress – especially when amplified by estrogen – leads to damage, exhaustion, and aging. The uterus and ovaries are involved in the stress response, but (as Zeilmaker and Wise have shown) the brain is more directly involved in menopause than the ovaries or uterus. Coordination proves crucial for complex processes like ovulation, fertilization, and implantation. Destruction of the nerve cells that regulate the pituitary makes coordination impossible." August/September 1995 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Role of gonadotropins in ovarian and brain function during aging"Gonadotropins are involved in the development, maintenance, and function of the ovaries, and their effects depend on their timing, their balance with each other, and with the steroids that the ovaries produce in response to their stimulation. Their effects are also influenced by many other factors – from the ovaries, the nervous system, the pituitary, the uterus, and the immune system. In youth, the system functions in coordination, with ovulation as a result. In aging, the key changes seem to be a declining ability of the ovary and brain to produce progesterone." August/September 1995 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Pituitary oversecretion and risks for ovarian cancer"Two things can cause the pituitary gland to secrete excessive amounts of gonadotropins: a lack of steroids and damage to the steroid-sensitive nerves that regulate the pituitary. If an ovary is relocated (transplanted into the spleen) so that its hormones are destroyed before reaching the brain, there is an oversecretion of gonadotropic hormones, and tumors develop in the ovary. The interpretation that oversecretion causes the tumors is supported by other observations – for example, that removal of one ovary increases the likelihood of developing cancer in the other ovary, and that prolonged use of estrogen (known to create conditions for later oversecretion of gonadotropin) increases the risk of ovarian cancer after menopause." August/September 1995 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of estrogen and cortisol in epileptic seizures and brain diseases"Estrogen increases the brain's susceptibility to epileptic seizures, and recent research shows that it (as well as cortisol) promotes the effects of excitotoxins, which are increasingly linked to degenerative brain diseases." August/September 1995 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The brain as the primary organ of "cost-free" adaptation"As Felix Meerson has shown, the brain is the preferred organ of adaptation because adaptation at the level of learning has no biological cost – in terms of limiting our structure and function." November 1994 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Role of Ritalin in Improving Concentration through Brain Energy"Since the 1960s, a stimulant, Ritalin (methylphenidate), has often been prescribed to hyperactive children because it allows them to be calmly attentive. This effect has been called paradoxical, but from the perspective of scientific physiology, there is nothing paradoxical about it. The frontal lobes of the brain – the most highly developed part – give us the ability to plan and understand complex things that require sustained attention. Without this higher part of the brain, which has a very high energy demand, people and animals become hyperactive and cannot concentrate. Ritalin (or coffee) makes everyone – even the brightest students – more attentive and focused. Caffeine and Ritalin temporarily increase the brain's energy level." April 1994 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Importance of Thyroid Hormones for Sustained High Brain Energy"Thyroid hormones are crucial for providing the energy that keeps the brain constantly at a high energy level. When these hormones are lacking, our nerves need stimulants to function normally, and the body usually produces large amounts of adrenaline to keep us going. The result is that we feel both tired and tense at the same time." April 1994 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Influence of Carbohydrates and Salt on Brain Energy and Relaxation"The brain is like a muscle: it needs to restore its energy to relax. Many people have noticed that they become sleepy when they eat a lot of carbohydrates and/or salt. Both salt and carbohydrates tend to lower adrenaline, and carbohydrates can additionally increase thyroid hormone activity while restoring energy in the tissues." April 1994 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Heart as an Indicator of Stress Resistance and Longevity"The heart gives us some clues about our overall resilience to stress, aging, disease, and death. The heart and brain are the most stress-resistant organs, and while moderate stress and malnutrition can cause the skin and thymus gland to lose more than 90% of their substance, only the most prolonged and intense stress can cause the heart and brain to lose more than a quarter of their substance." June 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Adaptive Organ Response Under Stress Conditions"When we are able to respond appropriately and adaptively to stress, there is a shift of substance from the less efficient organs (mostly skin and thymus) to the organs that bear the greatest burden – usually the heart and brain." June 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Importance of Anticatabolic Steroids in the Brain“The other anti-catabolic steroids – pregnenolone, progesterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) – are present in larger amounts and of more general importance than testosterone, especially in the brain, where their concentration is very high.” June 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Adaptation and stress resistance mechanisms of the brain“Our brain is the newest and most powerful organ of adaptation and stress resistance, enabling the simpler systems of circulation and metabolism to align themselves so that the greatest possible benefit is achieved with the least possible harm. Just as there are pro- and anti-catabolic hormones and circulatory patterns, the brain also has stress-promoting and stress-limiting systems.” June 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Sleep as a brain function for stress reduction“Sleep is a general stress-limiting function of the brain.” June 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Heart failure and protective system response to stress“If stress is strong enough and lasts long enough to overcome the heart’s multiple protective systems, the heart fails in specific, clearly defined ways – both functionally and structurally. But before damage occurs, the heart’s, endocrine system’s, and brain’s stress-limiting self-regulation systems must first fail.” June 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone activates the respiratory center against stress“Under stress, even the respiratory center in the brain becomes underactive and tolerates the state of hypoxia. Since progesterone activates the respiratory center, the suppressed breathing under stress is consistent with a progesterone deficiency.” June 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Comparison of stress resistance between heart and liver“The resilience of the heart and liver can be compared in various ways. For example, DNA replication in the liver is more easily suppressed by stress than in the heart, but DNA repair is not affected by stress in the same way. Overactivity of the heart stabilizes DNA against damage, so DNA repair is greater in the liver than in the heart – and lowest in the brain.” June 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Anti-stress effects of GABA and protective mechanisms“Meerson’s lab has studied the anti-stress and anti-adrenaline-like effects of GABA and its metabolite gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), especially in the form of the lithium salt. (Lithium seems to have its own anti-stress effect, probably partly as a sodium agonist and partly due to its ability to complex with ammonium, which forms in the brain during exhaustion – exactly when the GABA system activates.) GHB acts protectively against stress-related tissue damage. It prevents stress-induced leakage of enzymes from tissues, ulcerations of the stomach lining, lipid peroxidation, epileptic seizures, impaired heart contraction function, and heart rhythm disorders caused by stress or ischemia.” June 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Age-related decline of brain-stabilizing hormones"With age, pregnenolone and its derivatives – progesterone and DHEA – decline sharply. The brain, the organ with the highest concentration of these stabilizing substances, has many systems to adapt to their decreasing concentration, but the immune system is probably less able to compensate for these age-related changes." August/September 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Alzheimer's disease: protective steroids and phagocyte function"The combination of an extreme drop in the concentration of protective steroids in the brain and impaired phagocyte function could explain some features of Alzheimer's disease. In this disease, microtubules accumulate in nerve cells and other nerve cells die, leaving tangles of their axons behind, including microtubules. These cells are not removed as dead cells normally are. A below-average body temperature and hypothyroidism likely contribute to the sluggishness of phagocytes." August/September 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Alzheimer's disease: protective steroids and phagocyte function"Progesterone has the special status of being an essential factor for nerve growth and generally blocks the catabolic effects of glucocorticoids and estrogen. This protects all tissues – from brain cells to white blood cells." August/September 1992 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of energy for brain function and behavioral patterns"The availability of energy is central to our stable functioning, and energy demand strongly changes our functioning. For example, as hunger increases, the brain's interpretive system changes so that more and more unknown things are considered possible food. The spreading arousal that leads to this expanded search probably also occurs in relation to other needs besides hunger and could lead to experiments with drugs and other activities that provide indirect satisfaction. Compulsive and obsessive patterns can sometimes be resolved by supporting the brain's energy metabolism – for example, with a supplement of magnesium and thyroid." June 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effect of thyroid hormone on sleep, cramps, and anxiety"Although many people consider the thyroid as a kind of stimulant because it can cure coma or lethargy in myxedema, this is a very misleading idea. In hypothyroidism, the brain-stimulating hormones adrenaline, estrogen, and cortisol are usually elevated, and the nerve-muscle-relaxing magnesium is low. Normal, deep sleep is rare in a hypothyroid person. The correct dose of triiodothyronine (the active thyroid hormone) together with magnesium is a reliable treatment for insomnia, cramps, and anxiety – whether these symptoms are caused by exhaustion, aging, or alcohol withdrawal." June 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Historical use of hypertonic solutions in therapy"Until about 1940, the use of hypertonic solutions in therapy was quite common. Books still mention the use of urea (USP) as a diuretic to treat brain swelling, but I have not heard that it is still used this way in the United States today." July 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
PMS, edema, and historical treatments"In PMS, edema is a common problem, and it was previously thought that brain edema was responsible for irritability or depression or other nervous symptoms, and diuretics such as ammonium compounds and urea were frequently used. (Premenstrual salt cravings are the result of estrogen-disrupted water balance, and salt restriction in PMS is just as inappropriate as in preeclampsia or toxemia of pregnancy.)" July 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Inhibitory brain cells and the relationship between acetylcholine and histamine"Some inhibitory cells in the brain (including those involved in the comatose state of protective inhibition) secrete acetylcholine. The similarity of the effects of histamine and acetylcholine was so great that many people previously considered histamine the systemic cholinergic hormone equivalent to acetylcholine. Because of this similarity, any chemical that disrupts one of these neurotransmitters will likely also disrupt the other – though not necessarily in the same way." January 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Anti-stress effects of GABA and promotion of progesterone"The most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain is GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), which is closely related to asparagine and succinic acid. GABA has many anti-stress effects, in addition to its direct calming effect in the brain. For example, it causes insulin storage so that some of the sugar is not converted into fat, and it promotes the formation of progesterone, which protects many systems from harmful overactivity." January 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Stress and the harmful effects of glucocorticoids on the brain"It is now clear that both stress and an excess of glucocorticoid hormones cause brain damage (as well as damage to all other organs). Marion Diamond's work with rats (confined or free) showed that stress causes very general brain damage, including to the cerebral cortex, and others have shown specific damage to the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and other brain areas." January 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of anticholinergic drugs on the brain and hormone production"Excessive cholinergic activity alone can cause brain damage. The anticholinergic drugs amantadine (Symmetrel) and atropine (related to substances from the thorn apple) were used to treat Parkinson's disease. Atropine was formerly listed as an antidote for many poisons, probably because of its stabilizing effect on nerves. It also promotes the formation of the protective hormone progesterone." January 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Decline of protective hormones in the aging brain"In young people, the brain contains a very high concentration of pregnenolone and its derivatives, DHEA and progesterone – all substances that stabilize cells and protect against the effects of cortisol. In old age, however, these fall to about 5% of their normal concentration, leaving the brain exposed to the destructive effects of cortisol." January 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Cellular excitation, energy availability, and cell survival"Since excessive excitation of cells (relative to available energy) causes cells to die – in the brain as well as elsewhere – it is important to consider as many natural forms of inhibition as possible while doing everything to maintain energy production." January 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Taurine and glycine as inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain"The amino acids taurine and glycine are also considered inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain." January 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Taurine and glycine as inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain"The brain's content of progesterone, pregnenolone, and DHEA is normally 20 to 30 times higher than the serum concentration, and these hormones protect against both estrogen and cortisone." April 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Toxic effects of estrogen on the brain and aging"Too easy clotting is just one of the problems that can be caused by an excess of estrogen, and I don't want to overemphasize that because I consider its toxic effects on the brain and its acceleration of brain aging to be its worst effects." April 1991 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Administration of cortisol produces age-like symptoms in organ systems"The main features of aging can be directly produced by administering excessive amounts of cortisol. These features include atrophy of skin, arteries, muscles, bones, immune system, and parts of the brain, loss of pigment (melanin), fat deposits in certain areas, as well as slowed nerve conduction velocity." October 1990 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Possible benefits of delayed puberty according to animal studies"If we can generalize from animal studies, a delay in puberty could increase brain size and lifespan, improve intelligence, reduce violence, and even make people physically more attractive." October 1990 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Influence of cholesterol on the production of protective hormones"The highest concentration of cholesterol in the body is found in the brain. The cholesterol level in the blood strongly influences the production of protective hormones, such as progesterone." October 1990 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Positive feedback systems with progesterone and thyroid hormones"The existence of some positive feedback systems (self-stimulation) suggests, however, that in our basic structure we tend toward an expansive, upward direction. Progesterone (and its precursors pregnenolone and cholesterol) as well as thyroid hormones are involved in some important positive feedback systems that affect energy production, stress resistance, and brain growth." October 1990 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Camphoric Acid as a Copper Transporter for Brain and Lymphatic System"I was interested in using camphoric acid to transport copper: This could allow it to enter the brain and also be absorbed via the lymphatic system, bypassing the liver and thus allowing a large dose to be taken without damaging the liver." June 1988 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Different Effects of Endorphins and Immune Suppression by Opiates"Since I mentioned endorphins above in connection with resistance to infections, I should add that these endogenous peptides are actually a family of substances with very different properties: Some activate the right hemisphere of the brain, others the left. The two hemispheres have different effects on the immune system. Opiates are strong suppressors of immunity. I think it is clear that morphine and codeine should never be used when there is immune deficiency." June 1988 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Destructive Cortisol Excess: Gut Enzymes and Allergies"Although a physiologically balanced amount of cortisol induces detoxification enzymes – for example in the gut – an unchecked excess leads to the destruction of these enzymes. This results in a large part of the gut's barrier function being lost and leads to allergies. This effect of cortisol on the thymus and the detoxifying gut enzymes very likely explains the frequent connection between allergies and viral infections. Since cortisol has a destabilizing, seizure-promoting effect on the nervous system, psychological symptoms – from compulsive behavior to depression or seizures – are probably also linked to other chronic conditions." August/September 1988 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Epilepsy and Insomnia as Low-Energy States in Brain Cells"Epilepsy is an example of a very low-energy state of brain cells. Insomnia is a state of low energy and is usually cured by the right dose of thyroid hormone – along with sufficient glucose and other nutrients." February 1986 |
Ray Peat on the Brain
Supplements according to Ray Peat
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Dried Organic Pasture-Raised Beef Liver Capsules
Normal price €44,99 EURNormal priceBase price for€42,99 EURSales price €44,99 EUR -
Hydrolyzed Collagen Powder from Pasture-Raised Beef
Normal price €29,99 EURNormal priceBase price for€27,99 EURSales price €29,99 EUR -
Dried Organic Pasture-Raised Beef Thyroid in Capsules
Normal price €59,99 EURNormal priceBase price for€47,99 EURSales price €59,99 EUR -
Vitamin D3 + K2 MK7 - 4000 IU + 200 µg Drops
Normal price €19,90 EURNormal priceBase price for€19,90 EURSales price €19,90 EUR
